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CONTENTS
Volume 38, Number 6, September25 2024 (Special Issue)
 

Abstract
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Key Words
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Address
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Abstract
Bottom ash classifies as a hazardous industrial-waste material that adversely affects human health. This study proposes its mixing with controlled low strength materials (CLSM) as a probable recycling approach. To this end, experiments have been performed to investigate the applicability of bottom-ash-based CLSM that comprises eco-friendly soil binders, water, fly ash, and a combination of bottom ash and weathered granite soil. The physical and chemical properties of the weathered granite soil, bottom ash, fly ash, and soil binders are analyzed via laboratory tests, including X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. To determine an appropriate CLSM mixing proportion, the flowability test is first performed on three mixture types having three replacement ratios of fly ash each. Subsequently, compressive-strength tests are performed. Based on the results of these tests, four mixtures are selected for the freeze-and-thaw test to determine the appropriate mixing proportion. Finally, the ground model and soil-contamination tests are performed to examine the field applicability of the mixture. This study confirms that bottom-ash-based CLSM causes negligible soil contamination, and it satisfies the prescribed performance requirements and contamination standards in Korea.

Key Words
environmentally friendly soil binder; field applicability; freezing and thawing; ground model test

Address
Youngsu Lee: Taeyoung E&C, 111 Yeouigongwon-ro, Seoul 07241, Korea
Taeyeon Kim: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
Bongjik Lee: Department of Civil Engineering, Korea National University of Transportation,
50 Daehak-ro, Chungju-si, Chungbuk 27469, Republic of Korea
Seongwon Hong: Department of Safety Engineering, Korea National University of Transportation,
50 Daehak-ro, Chungju-si, Chungbuk 27469, Republic of Korea

Abstract
In recent tunneling projects, encounters with multi-layered strata have become more frequent as the desired scale of tunneling increases. Despite substantial practical experience, the design of large-diameter shield-driven tunnels often simplifies the surrounding ground as uniform, overlooking the complexities introduced by non-uniform geotechnical factors. This study comparatively analyzed the influence of design factors, particularly segment stiffness and joint parameters, on segmental lining behavior in layered ground conditions using numerical methods. A comprehensive parametric study revealed the significant impact of deformative interaction between the lining and the soft top soil layer on overall tunnel behavior. Permitting lining deformation in the soft soil layer effectively mitigated the induced internal forces but resulted in considerable tunnel lining convergence, adopting a peanut-shaped appearance. From a practical design perspective, application of a soft segment with lower stiffness near the stiff soil layer is an economically advantageous approach, alleviating internal forces within an acceptable convergence level. Notably, around the interfaces between soil layers with different stiffnesses, the induced internal forces in the lining were minimized based on joint rotational stiffness and location. This indicates the possibility of achieving an optimal design for segmental lining joints under layered ground conditions. Additionally, a preliminary design method was proposed, which sequentially optimizes parameters for joints located near soil layer interfaces. Subsequently, a specialized design based on the proposed method for complex multi-layered strata was compared with a conventional design. The results confirmed that the internal force was effectively relieved at an allowable lining deflection level.

Key Words
convergence; internal force; joint rotational stiffness; longitudinal joint design; numerical method

Address
Joohyun Park, Seok-Jun Kang, Jun-Beom An and Gye-Chun Cho: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST),
291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea

Abstract
Concrete linings in tunnels constructed by drilling and blasting such as NATM serve as a secondary support structure. However, these linings can face unexpected earth pressures if the primary support deteriorates or if ground conditions become unfavorable. It is crucial to determine the loosening earth pressure that allows the lining to maintain its structural integrity and prevent damage caused by this pressure. This study proposes a numerical model for simulating the trapdoor test and developing a method for calculating the loosening earth pressure. The discrete element method (DEM) was employed to describe the soil characteristics around the tunnel. Using this numerical model, a sequence of experimental trapdoor steps was simulated, and the loosening earth pressure was analyzed. Contact parameters were calibrated based on an analysis of a triaxial compression test. The reliability of the developed model was confirmed through a comparison between simulation results and laboratory test findings. The model was used to calculate the contact force applied to the trapdoor plate and to assess the settlement of soil particles. Furthermore, the model accounted for the soil-arching effect, which effectively redistributes the load to the surrounding areas. The proposed model can be applied to analyze the tunnel's cross-sectional dimensions and design stability under various ground conditions.

Key Words
discrete element method; loosening earth pressure; soil-arching effect; trapdoor test

Address
Chaemin Hwang and Hangseok Choi: School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Civil Engineering, Korea University,
145, Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Junhyuk Choi: Civil Overseas Engineering Team, Daewoo Engineering & Construction Co., Ltd., 170,
Eulji-ro, Jung-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
Jee-Hee Jung: Korea Expressway Corporation Research Institute, 24, Dongtansunhwan-daero 17-gil,
Hwaseong-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea

Abstract
To properly simulate the excavation process and evaluate the structural stability of the tunnel, rigorous large deformation analysis method is necessary. This study applies two most widely used numerical approaches capable of modelling and considering the large deformations behavior during excavation process to analyze and evaluate the structural stability of circular tunnel based on tunnel boring machine (TBM) excavation. By comparing and combining the results from two numerical approaches, the deformation of the excavated ground will be analyzed. The stability of the circular tunnel from TBM tunneling was assessed based on the maximum deformation occurred during the excavation process. From the numerical computation it was concluded that although the range of the damage on the ground done during excavation was found to be larger under hard rock condition, maximum deformation within the circular tunnel structure was larger under weak ground conditions and deeper tunnel depths.

Key Words
circular tunnel; large deformation analysis; numerical analysis; TBM tunnels; tunnel deformation

Address
Dohyun Kim: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hanbat National University, Daejeon 34158, Korea

Abstract
In this paper, the quantitative evaluation method is presented for the durability performance of mountain tunnel concrete linings experiencing freezing and thawing during winter season. To analyze the freeze-thaw characteristics of lining, the freezing time of the concrete lining was measured by the outside temperature. The heat flow analysis was conducted based on the freezing time measured through the indoor experiment, and based on this, the energy required to freeze the concrete lining by the temperature of the outside air could be analyzed. In addition, the temperature change during the winter season was measured through an instrument installed on the actual tunnel concrete lining, and based on the results of indoor and field experiments, criteria for freeze-thaw environment evaluation and progress evaluation were prepared. Also, an equation using the freezing index was proposed through regression analysis.

Key Words
criteria development; durability performance; freeze-thaw characteristics; Heat flow analysis; quantitative evaluation method

Address
Jai-Wook An: Environmental Social Governance Section, KALIS, Gyeongsangnamdo 52856, Korea
Joon-Shik Moo: Department of Civil Engineering, Kyungpook national university
80, Daehak-ro, Buk-gu, Daegu, Republic of Korea
Hong-Kyoon Kim: 3Department of Ground Safety, KALIS, Gyeongsangnamdo 52852, Korea


Abstract
In downtown subway project most of excavated soil is discarded externally, whereas in road construction excavated soil is used as filling material and management of surplus soil becomes important factor for success of the project. Excavated materials from slurry shield TBM are discharged through discharge pipe to slurry treatment plant and excavated soil mixed with bentonite are separated in separation plant by grain size. Fine material has been discarded together in filter cake without recycling. Its volume can vary according to geologic condition but statistically fine material as filter cake is about 5%~30% out of overall excavated volume. However, filter cake is non-toxic and can be recycled when mixed in the appropriate proportions with coarse aggregate. Therefore, in this study, utilization of excavated soil from a slurry shield TBM were examined and lab tests were conducted to find the proper way for mixing filter cake and aggregate to be recycled as fill material for road construction.

Key Words
bentonite recycling; fill material for road construction; filter cake recycling; slurry TBM

Address
Sung-Min Nam: Departemnt of Civil., Hyundai Engineering & Construction, Republic of Korea
Joon-Shik Moon and Hyoungseok Oh: Department of Civil Engineering, Kyungpook National University,
80, Daehak-ro, Buk-gu, Daegu, Republic of Korea
Junyoung Ko: Department of Civil Engineering, Chungnam National University,
99, Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, Republic of Korea

Abstract
The slope stabilization method is constructed on bedrock, but performance degradation occurs during an impact (earthquake, blasting, etc.) after construction, which may affect service life and factor of safety. In particular, the top-down method implies the possibility of damage caused by blasting vibration due to the construction procedure. However, the current blasting design only reflects damage to nearby facilities, so there is a limit in its ability to assess the damage of reinforcement methods caused by blasting vibration within the scope of influence. In this study, we aim to evaluate problems and damage levels caused by close blasting effects on rock-integrated structures, such as panel-type retaining walls, anchor-combined structures, and small nails, which are mainly constructed using the top-down method. We will also analyze factors affecting long-term performance according to changes in conditions after construction, such as tunnel excavation, to establish optimal design measures.

Key Words
blasting effects; cutting slope; tunnel blasting; tunnel portal

Address
Ji-Ung Lee: Department of Architectural Engineering, Chung-Ang University,
84, Heukseok-ro, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 06974, Republic of Korea
Jee-Hee Jung, Kang-Hyun Lee, SangRae Lee and Nag-Young Kim:
Safety Innovation& Disaster Prevention Research Division, Korea Expressway Corporation Research Institute,
24, Dongbusunhwan-daero 17-gil, Hwaseongsi, Gyeonggi-do 18489, Republic of Korea

Abstract
In designing earthquake-resistant structures, we traditionally select dynamic loads based on the recurrence period of earthquakes, using individual seismic records or aligning them with the design spectrum. However, these records often represent isolated waveforms lacking continuity, underscoring the need for a deeper understanding of natural seismic phenomena. The Earth's crustal movement, both before and after a significant earthquake, can trigger a series of both minor and major seismic events. These minor earthquakes, which often occur in short time before or after the major seismic events, prompt a critical reassessment of their potential impact on structural design. In this study, we conducted a detailed tunnel response analysis to assess the impact of both single mainshock and multiple earthquake scenarios (including foreshock-mainshock and mainshockaftershock sequences). Utilizing numerical analysis, we explored how multiple earthquakes affect tunnel deformation. Our findings reveal that sequential seismic events, even those of moderate magnitude, can exert considerable stress on tunnel lining, resulting in heightened bending stress and permanent displacement. This research highlights a significant insight: current seismic design methodologies, which predominantly focus on the largest seismic intensity, may fail to account for the cumulative impact of smaller, yet frequent, seismic events like foreshocks and aftershocks. Our results demonstrate that dynamic analyses considering only a single mainshock are likely to underestimate the potential damage (i.e., ovaling deformation, failure lining, permanent displacement etc.) when compared to analyses that incorporate multiple earthquake scenarios.

Key Words
earthquake sequences; numerical simulation; permanent displacement; seismic design; tunnel lining

Address
Junyoung Lee and Byungmin Kim: Department of Urban and Environmental Engineering, UNIST, 50, UNIST-gil, Eonyang-eup, Ulju-gun, Ulsan, Republic of Korea
Jae-Kwang Ahn: Earthquake and Volcano Bureau, Korea Meteorological Administration, 61 Yeouidaebang-ro 16-gil,
Dongjak-gu, Seoul, Republic of KoreaWuxi, 214122 ,China

Abstract
Disc cutters, used as excavation tools for rocks in a Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM), naturally undergo wear during the tunneling process, involving crushing and cutting through the ground, leading to various wear types. When disc cutters reach their wear limits, they must be replaced at the appropriate time to ensure efficient excavation. General disc cutter life prediction models are typically used during the design phase to predict the total required quantity and replacement locations for construction. However, disc cutters are replaced more frequently during tunneling than initially planned. Unpredictable disc cutter replacements can easily diminish tunneling efficiency, and abnormal wear is a common cause during tunneling in complex ground conditions. This study aims to overcome the limitations of existing disc cutter life prediction models by utilizing machine data generated during tunneling to predict disc cutter wear patterns and determine the need for replacements in real-time. Artificial intelligence classification algorithms, including K-nearest Neighbors (KNN), Support Vector Machine (SVM), Decision Tree (DT), and Stacking, are employed to assess the need for disc cutter replacement. Binary classification models are developed to predict which disc cutters require replacement, while multi-class classification models are fine-tuned to identify three categories: no replacement required, replacement due to normal wear, and replacement due to abnormal wear during tunneling. The performance of these models is thoroughly assessed, demonstrating that the proposed approach effectively manages disc cutter wear and replacements in shield TBM tunnel projects.

Key Words
artificial intelligence; disc cutter wear pattern; excavation data; multi-class classification model; shield TBM

Address
Yunhee Kim, Jaewoo Shin and Bumjoo Kim: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Dongguk University, 30 Pildong-ro 1-gil, Jung-Gu, Seoul, 04620, Republic of Korea

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